acetic acid;(4S)-5-[[2-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-5-amino-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-4-amino-1-[[2-[[2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[2-[[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-amino-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-1,4-dioxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-5-carbamimidamido-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-methylsulfanyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1,5-dioxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-carboxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-4-[[2-[[(2S)-2-amino-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]amino]acetyl]amino]-5-oxopentanoic acid

Target of Action

Exenatide Acetate primarily targets the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor . This receptor plays a crucial role in glucose homeostasis .

Mode of Action

Exenatide Acetate is a GLP-1 receptor agonist . By activating this receptor, it increases insulin secretion and decreases glucagon secretion in a glucose-dependent manner . Additionally, Exenatide Acetate slows gastric emptying and decreases food intake .

Biochemical Pathways

Exenatide Acetate affects several biochemical pathways. It modulates the body’s natural response to glucose . More insulin and less glucagon are released in response to glucose . In cases of hypoglycemia, a normal amount of glucagon is released . Exenatide Acetate also slows gastric emptying, leading to a slower and prolonged release of glucose into the systemic circulation .

Pharmacokinetics

It is known that exenatide acetate is administered subcutaneously

Result of Action

The molecular and cellular effects of Exenatide Acetate’s action include increased insulin secretion, decreased glucagon secretion, and slowed gastric emptying . These effects improve glycemic control . Additionally, Exenatide Acetate has been found to exert a rapid anti-inflammatory effect at the cellular and molecular level, which may contribute to a potentially beneficial antiatherogenic effect .

Action Environment

It is known that exenatide acetate is used as an adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes This suggests that lifestyle factors such as diet and physical activity may influence the efficacy of Exenatide Acetate

Biochemical Properties

Exenatide Acetate plays a crucial role in biochemical reactions by interacting with several enzymes, proteins, and other biomolecules. It binds to the GLP-1 receptor, a G-protein-coupled receptor, which leads to the activation of adenylate cyclase and an increase in cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels. This interaction results in the enhancement of insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells and the suppression of glucagon release from alpha cells . Additionally, Exenatide Acetate interacts with enzymes involved in the degradation of incretin hormones, such as dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), which prolongs its activity in the bloodstream .

Cellular Effects

Exenatide Acetate exerts various effects on different cell types and cellular processes. In pancreatic beta cells, it enhances insulin secretion in response to elevated glucose levels. In alpha cells, it suppresses glucagon release, which helps to lower blood glucose levels . Exenatide Acetate also affects gastrointestinal cells by slowing gastric emptying, which leads to a more gradual absorption of glucose into the bloodstream . Furthermore, it influences cell signaling pathways, such as the cAMP pathway, and modulates gene expression related to insulin synthesis and secretion .

Molecular Mechanism

The molecular mechanism of Exenatide Acetate involves its binding to the GLP-1 receptor on the surface of target cells. This binding activates the receptor and triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events, including the activation of adenylate cyclase and the subsequent increase in cAMP levels . The elevated cAMP levels activate protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates various target proteins involved in insulin secretion and glucagon suppression . Additionally, Exenatide Acetate modulates gene expression by influencing transcription factors that regulate the synthesis of insulin and other related proteins .

Temporal Effects in Laboratory Settings

In laboratory settings, the effects of Exenatide Acetate have been observed to change over time. The compound is relatively stable, but it can degrade under certain conditions, such as exposure to high temperatures or extreme pH levels . Long-term studies have shown that Exenatide Acetate maintains its efficacy in improving glycemic control over extended periods, with sustained effects on insulin secretion and glucagon suppression . Some degradation products may form over time, which could potentially affect its activity .

Dosage Effects in Animal Models

In animal models, the effects of Exenatide Acetate vary with different dosages. At lower doses, it effectively enhances insulin secretion and suppresses glucagon release, leading to improved glycemic control . At higher doses, Exenatide Acetate may cause adverse effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and hypoglycemia . Studies have also shown that there is a threshold dose beyond which no further improvement in glycemic control is observed, indicating a dose-dependent effect .

Metabolic Pathways

Exenatide Acetate is involved in several metabolic pathways, primarily related to glucose metabolism. It enhances insulin secretion, which promotes glucose uptake and utilization by peripheral tissues . Additionally, it suppresses glucagon release, which reduces hepatic glucose production . Exenatide Acetate also influences the metabolism of incretin hormones by inhibiting the activity of DPP-4, thereby prolonging the half-life of GLP-1 and enhancing its effects on glucose metabolism .

Transport and Distribution

Exenatide Acetate is transported and distributed within cells and tissues through various mechanisms. After subcutaneous injection, it is absorbed into the bloodstream and binds to plasma proteins, which helps to prolong its half-life . It is then distributed to target tissues, such as the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract, where it exerts its effects . Exenatide Acetate is also transported across cell membranes through receptor-mediated endocytosis, which facilitates its uptake by target cells .

Subcellular Localization

The subcellular localization of Exenatide Acetate is primarily within the cytoplasm and cell membrane of target cells. Upon binding to the GLP-1 receptor, it activates intracellular signaling pathways that lead to its effects on insulin secretion and glucagon suppression . Exenatide Acetate may also undergo post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, which can influence its activity and localization within the cell . Additionally, it may be directed to specific cellular compartments through targeting signals that ensure its proper function .

Synthetic Routes and Reaction Conditions

acetic acid;(4S)-5-[[2-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-5-amino-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-4-amino-1-[[2-[[2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[2-[[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-amino-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-1,4-dioxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-5-carbamimidamido-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-methylsulfanyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1,5-dioxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-carboxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-4-[[2-[[(2S)-2-amino-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]amino]acetyl]amino]-5-oxopentanoic acid is synthesized through solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS), a method commonly used for the production of peptides. The synthesis involves the sequential addition of amino acids to a growing peptide chain anchored to a solid resin. The process includes deprotection and coupling steps, which are repeated until the desired peptide sequence is obtained. The final product is then cleaved from the resin and purified .

Industrial Production Methods

In industrial settings, this compound is produced using large-scale SPPS. The process involves the use of automated peptide synthesizers to ensure high yield and purity. The peptide is then subjected to various purification techniques, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), to remove impurities and obtain the final product .

Types of Reactions

acetic acid;(4S)-5-[[2-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-5-amino-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-4-amino-1-[[2-[[2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[2-[[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-amino-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-1,4-dioxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-5-carbamimidamido-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-methylsulfanyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1,5-dioxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-carboxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-4-[[2-[[(2S)-2-amino-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]amino]acetyl]amino]-5-oxopentanoic acid undergoes several types of chemical reactions, including:

Oxidation: This reaction can occur at methionine residues, leading to the formation of methionine sulfoxide.

Reduction: Disulfide bonds within the peptide can be reduced to free thiols.

Substitution: Amino acid residues can be substituted to modify the peptide’s properties.

Common Reagents and Conditions

Oxidation: Hydrogen peroxide or other oxidizing agents.

Reduction: Dithiothreitol (DTT) or tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP).

Substitution: Amino acid derivatives and coupling reagents such as N,N’-diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC) and hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt).

Major Products Formed

Oxidation: Methionine sulfoxide.

Reduction: Free thiols from disulfide bonds.

Substitution: Modified peptides with altered amino acid sequences.

acetic acid;(4S)-5-[[2-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-5-amino-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-4-amino-1-[[2-[[2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[2-[[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-amino-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-1,4-dioxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-5-carbamimidamido-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-methylsulfanyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1,5-dioxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-carboxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-4-[[2-[[(2S)-2-amino-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]amino]acetyl]amino]-5-oxopentanoic acid has a wide range of scientific research applications, including:

Chemistry: Used as a model peptide for studying peptide synthesis and purification techniques.

Biology: Investigated for its role in glucose metabolism and its effects on pancreatic beta cells.

Medicine: Primarily used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Industry: Utilized in the development of sustained-release formulations for long-term glycemic control.

acetic acid;(4S)-5-[[2-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-5-amino-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S,3S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-6-amino-1-[[(2S)-4-amino-1-[[2-[[2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[2-[[(2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-1-amino-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]carbamoyl]pyrrolidin-1-yl]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-1,4-dioxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-5-carbamimidamido-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-carboxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-4-methylsulfanyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1,5-dioxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxohexan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-carboxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxobutan-2-yl]amino]-2-oxoethyl]amino]-4-[[2-[[(2S)-2-amino-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]amino]acetyl]amino]-5-oxopentanoic acid is often compared with other GLP-1 receptor agonists, such as:

Liraglutide: Another GLP-1 receptor agonist with a longer half-life, allowing for once-daily administration.

Dulaglutide: A GLP-1 receptor agonist with a longer half-life, allowing for once-weekly administration.

Semaglutide: A GLP-1 receptor agonist available in both injectable and oral formulations

Uniqueness

This compound is unique due to its origin from the saliva of the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) and its ability to be administered twice daily or once weekly in its extended-release form. It has been shown to provide significant glycemic control and weight loss benefits, making it a valuable option for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus .